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经济学的内部纠纷

书籍名:《诺贝尔经济学奖的逻辑》    作者:阿夫纳.奥弗尔
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    《诺贝尔经济学奖的逻辑》经济学的内部纠纷,页面无弹窗的全文阅读!



诺贝尔经济学奖得主并不认同新古典宏观经济学。实际上(在第五章我们可以看到),相反的情况更接近事实。诺贝尔奖评定委员会也有所犹豫。在诺贝尔经济学奖得主中,新古典宏观经济学学派的经济学家已经被明确地否定了,否定这一学派的经济学家有肯尼斯·阿罗、詹姆斯·托宾、弗兰科·莫迪利安尼、罗伯特·索洛、弗农·史密斯(在他的诺贝尔获奖演说中)、埃德蒙·费尔普斯、保罗·克鲁格曼、克里斯托弗·西姆斯,当然还可能有其他人。 [97] 索洛曾经写道:“宏观社会已经对其自身进行了夸张的欺诈,对其学生也是如此。” [98] 在关于2008年金融危机的一次国会听证会上,这位凯恩斯主义的经济学家对于新古典宏观经济学给予了粗鲁的回应:


他们想当然地认为整个经济可以被看成是一个单一的、一致的个体或者一个朝代,他能够执行一套按照理性设计好的长期的计划,只是偶尔被预期之外的震动扰乱一下,但是可以以一种理性的、一致的办法调整自身。我认为这幅图画是不可能通过嗅诊测试的。这一思想的主角宣称对自己的社会地位负责,宣称这一理论是建立在我们对于宏观经济行为的了解之上的,但是实际上我认为这种宣称是虚伪的。 [99]


模型化是不可逃避的,在经济学中模型是一种飞行器。我们在本书第六章也使用数学模型来描述和解释诺贝尔经济学奖得主的著名的理论轨迹。索洛的双重因素经济的新古典宏观经济学增长模型(资本和劳动)是接近于典型代理人模型的,虽然它并不假定资本和劳动的总和有其自身隐含的含义。但是模型没有独立的权威性。为了证明政策的正确性,模型必须考虑一些真实的购买行为。数学家、物理学家和博学家冯·诺依曼因为说了这样的话而闻名:“当你甚至不知道你正在讨论什么的时候,再精确都是没有意义的。” [100]

决策制定者就像现在的作者一样,必须凭信任来相信这些专家。他们不是模型构建者。如何决定听谁的?政策不能单一地依赖模型,它在设计上并不像喷气式飞机那样精确,它的表现也不容易测量。收集信息、开展研究、写作论文、咨询机构,同样还有偏见、歧视、忠诚和配偶问题。模型仅是所有混合问题的一部分而已。最成功的因素能够进入政策制定的考虑之中,成为“初始模型”,这些因素必须是被深信不疑的,政策制定者认为专家懂得这些问题,虽然并不确定如何知道及为什么。那些应用政策的人很少能够将模型拆分,或者自己来进行平衡。有说服力的模型的单一存在有一些证明价值,这是独立于证明之外的。模型是很难被检验的,并且不确认性被忽略了。所以这就是诺贝尔奖的权威品质的重要性所在。奖项的魅力和权威的有效性就是我们下一章要谈的内容。


[1] McCloskey,‘Economics Science:A Search through the Hyperspace of As-sumptions’(1991),11.

[2] Morgan,The World in the Model(2012),ch.5.

[3] ‘Neoclassical’:The economics of Adam Smith,David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill(classical economics,c.1770-1870)reckoned economic value by the cost of production.Its‘neoclassical’successors(from the 1870s onwards,including W.S.Jevons,Vilfredo Pareto,Alfred Marshall,Paul Samuelson)measured it by willingness to pay.

[4] Robinson,Economic Philosophy(1962),79.On her entitlement to the prize,see 136-137,below.

[5] Boumans,‘Built-in Justification’(1999),93.

[6] In substantive agreement with Syll,On the Use and Misuse of Theories and Models(2015).

[7] Introduction,above,3.

[8] Smith,‘Digression Concerning the Corn Trade’,Wealth of Nations(1776/1976),IV.5.b 1-9,524-528.

[9] Offer,‘Self-interest,Sympathy and the Invisible Hand’(2012).

[10] Precursors,Ingrao and Israel,The Invisible Hand(1990),chs.2-3.

[11] Creedy,‘Some Recent Interpretations’(1980);Humphrey,‘Early History of the Box Diagram’(1996).

[12] Blaug,Economic Theory in Retrospect(1997),570-595.

[13] Historical survey and analysis,Ingrao and Israel,The Invisible Hand(1990).

[14] Rizvi,‘The Sonnenschein-Mantel-Debreu Results’(2006);Fisher,‘The Stability of General Equilibrium’(2011).

[15] Hahn,‘Reflections on the Invisible Hand’(1982/1984),121;Arrow,‘Ra-tionality of Self and Others in an Economic-System’(1986),S393.

[16] Hahn,‘On the Notion of Equilibrium in Economics’(1973/1984),52.

[17] Stiglitz,Whither Socialism(1994),ch.2.

[18] Humphrey,‘Early History of the Box Diagram’(1996).

[19] Lucas,‘What Economists Do’(1988),5.

[20] Ibid.,5.

[21] Lucas,‘Methods and Problems in Business Cycle Theory’(1980),697.

[22] McCloskey,‘Economic Science:A Search through the Hyperspace of Assump-tions’(1991),13;King,The Microfoundations Delusion(2012),ch.2.

[23] For example,Tovar,‘DSGE Models and Central Banks’(2008),18.

[24] von Neumann,‘Method in the Physical Sciences’(1955),492.

[25] Demsetz,‘Information and Efficiency’(1969),1.

[26] Schumpeter,History of Economic Analysis(1954),472-473.

[27] Lucas,‘Methods and Problems’(1980),700;Lucas,Lectures on Economic Growth(2002),21.

[28] Lucas,‘Methods and Problems’(1980),709;FORTRAN is a formerly per-vasive computer coding language.

[29] Forder,Macroeconomics and the Phillips Curve Myth(2014),argues that ne-oliberal critics misrepresented Keynesian policies.

[30] Modigliani,‘The Monetarist Controversy Revisited’(1988/1997);Mayer,‘The Twilight of the Monetarist Debate’(1990).



[31] Coase,‘The Institutional Structure of Production’,Nobel Lecture 1991.Nobel Lectures(delivered by NPWs usually a day or two after the prize ceremony)are cited henceforth with title and year.They are available at http://no-belprize.org/nobel_prizes/economic-sciences/laureates/index.html,and are mostly reprinted in an irregular series of variously edited volumes entitled Eco-nomic Sciences with dates.


[32] McLean,Public Choice(1980);Mueller,Public Choice III(2003).

[33] Fox,The Myth ofthe Rational Market(2009).

[34] Hirschman,Rhetoric of Reaction(1991),74.

[35] Freeth,The Antikythera Mechanism(2008);Freeth et al.,‘Calendars with Olympiad Display’(2008);Marchant,Decoding the Heavens(2008);Freeth,‘Decoding an Ancient Computer’(2009).

[36] Allais,‘An Outline of My Main Contributions’,Nobel Lecture 1988,243.

[37] Evans and Honkapohja,‘An Interview with Thomas Sargent’(2005),566.

[38] Kirman,‘Whom and What Does the Representative Individual Represent?’ (1992);Rizvi,‘The Sonnenschein-Mantel-Debreu Results after Thirty Years’(2006).

[39] Kirman,‘Whom or What Does the Representative Individual Represent?’(1992);Hartley,The Representative Agent(1997);Kincaid,Individualism and the Unity of Science(1997);Hoover,Methodology of Empirical Macro-economics(2001),ch.3;Duarte,Microfoundations Considered(2012);Janssen,Microfoundations(2012);King,The Microfoundations Delusion(2012);Syll,Use and Misuse of Theories and Models(2015),ch.3.

[40] Hoover,The New Classical Microeconomics(1998),224-230,241-244.

[41] Hahn,‘Macroeconomics and General Equilibrium’(2003),206.

[42] Caballero,‘Macroeconomics after the Crisis’(2010),89.

[43] Frydman and Phelps,‘Introduction’(1983),26;Frydman,‘Towards an Un-derstanding of Market Processes’(1982);Arrow,‘Rationality of Self and Others’(1986),S393.

[44] Macfarquar,‘The Deflationist’(2010).

[45] Davidson,‘Reality and Economic Theory’(1996).

[46] Favero and Hendry,‘Testing the Lucas Critique’(1992);Ericsson and Irons,‘The Lucas Critique in Practice’(1995);Linde,‘Testing for the Lucas Critique’(2001);Hendry,‘Forecast Failures,Expectations Formation and the Lucas Critique’(2002).

[47] Grimes,‘Four Lectures on Central Banking’(2014),4-37.

[48] Stiglitz,‘The Invisible Hand and Modern Welfare Economics’(1991),35.

[49] Klamer,The New Classical Macroeconomics(1984),49.

[50] Sent,Evolving Rationality of Rational Expectations(1998),1-11.

[51] Watson,‘Measures of Fit for Calibrated Models’(1993);Hoover,‘Facts and Artifacts’(1995);Hansen and Heckman,‘Empirical Foundations of Calibration’(1996);Carlaw and Lipsey,‘Does History Matter?’(2012).

[52] Evans and Honkapohja,‘Interview with Thomas Sargent’,568-569.

[53] Sargent and Velde,The Big Problem of Small Change(2002).

[54] Lucas,‘Methods and Problems in Business Cycle Theory’(1980),701.

[55] Hahn,‘General Equilibrium Theory’(1981/1984),79.

[56] Woodford,Interest and Prices(2003);Smets and Wouters,‘Estimated Dy-namic Stochastic General Equilibrium’(2003).

[57] Chari,‘Statement of V.V.Chari’(2010),32.

[58] Gürkaynak et al.,‘Do DSGE Forecast More Accurately’(2013).

[59] Tovar,‘DSGE Models and Central Banks’(2008),quotes,2,18;Schorf-heide,‘Estimation and Evaluation of DSGE Models’(2011).

[60] Marchionatti and Sella,‘Is Neo-Walrasian Macroeconomics a Dead End?’(2015),27.

[61] Bachman,‘What Economic Forecasters Really Do’(1996);Smith,‘The Most Damning Criticism of DSGE’(2014),including comments by Daniel Bachman;Dou,‘Macroeconomic Models’(2015).

[62] Friedman,‘The Methodology of Positive Economics’(1953).

[63] Ball,‘Intertemporal Substitutions’(1990),706,lists several earlier empirical failures;Pollock and Suyderhoud,‘An Empirical Window on Rational Expec-tation Formation’(1992);Carter and Maddock,Rational Expectations(1984),141-143;Lovell,‘Tests of the Rational Expectations Hypothesis’(1986);Obstfeld and Rogoff,Foundations of International Macroeconomics(1996),625,cited in Frydman and Goldberg(below),28-29;Estrella and Fuhrer,‘Dynamic Inconsistencies’(2002);Frydman and Goldberg,Beyond Mechanical Markets(2005),ch.5.

[64] Modigliani,‘Life-Cycle,Individual Thrift and the Wealth of Nations’,Nobel Lecture 1985.

[65] Lucas,Studies in Business-Cycle Theory(1981),8.

[66] Hahn,‘Review of Beenstock’(1981),1036.

[67] Lucas,‘What Economists Do’(1988).

[68] Lucas,‘Macroeconomic Priorities’(2003).

[69] Klamer,The New Classical Macroeconomics(1984),52.

[70] Lucas,‘Macroeconomic Priorities’(2003),2.

[71] Straub and Werning,‘Positive Long Run Capital Taxation:Chamley-Judd Revisited’(2014).

[72] Lucas,‘Macroeconomic Priorities’(2003),1-2;‘Dubious’,see Hansen and Heckman,‘Empirical Foundations of Calibration’(1996),100.

[73] Lucas,‘Macroeconomic Priorities’(2003),1-2.

[74] Offer,‘Economy of Obligation’(2012);Offer,‘A Warrant for Pain’(2012).

[75] Lucas,‘The Industrial Revolution—Past and Future’(2014).

[76] Córdoba and Verdier,‘Lucas vs.Lucas:On Inequality and Growth’(2007).

[77] Rosenau,Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences(1992);Blaug,‘Why IAm Not a Constructivist’(1994),130.

[78] Heap,‘Post-Modernity and New Conceptions of Rationality’(1993);Cul-lenberg et al.,Postmodernism,Economics and Knowledge(2001);Amariglio and Ruccio,Postmodern Moments in Modern Economics(2003).

[79] McCloskey,The Rhetoric of Economics(1985);Knowledge and Persuasion in Economics(1994).

[80] Sims,‘Macroeconomics and Methodology’(1996),110;Athreya,Big Ideas in Macroeconomics(2015),13-14.

[81] Varoufakis,‘Deconstructing Homo Economicus?’(2012),393.

[82] Lucas,Models of Business Cycles(1987),section V.

[83] For example,Lucas,ibid.,31,61,105.

[84] Ibid.,69.

[85] See also Arrow,‘Rationality of Self and Others’(1986),S390.

[86] Lipsey and Lancaster,‘The General Theory of Second Best’(1956);Buiter,‘The Economics of Dr Pangloss’(1980),45.

[87] Kapeller,‘Some Critical Notes’(2010),332-334;Francis,‘The Rise and Fall of Debate in Economics’(2014);Fourcade et al.,‘The Superiority of Economists’(2015).

[88] Lucas,‘Methods and Problems’(1980),698;Lucas,‘Macroeconomic Prior-ities’(2003),1;also Klamer,The New Classical Macroeconomics(1984),50-51;Mankiw,‘The Reincarnation of Keynesian Economics’(1991),1.

[89] Fourcade et al.,‘The Superiority of Economics’(2015).

[90] Nisbett and Ross,Human Inference(1980),30-32.

[91] Carter and Maddox,Rational Choice(1984),142.

[92] Proctor,Cancer Wars(1995),8;Proctor and Schiebinger,Agnotology:The Making and Unmaking of Ignorance(2008);Pinto,‘Tensions in Agnotology’(2015).

[93] Mirowski,Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste(2013),ch.4;Krugman,‘What They Say versus What They Mean’(2013).

[94] Suskind,‘Faith,Certainty and the Presidency of George W.Bush’(2004).



[95] For example,Robert Clower and David Colander,in Snowdon and Vane,Conversations with Leading Economists(1999),188-189,212,214-215;Caballero,‘Macroeconomics after the Crisis’(2010).


[96] Hicks,Causality in Economics(1979),viii.

[97] Phelps,Frydman and Phelps,‘Introduction’(1983);Tobin,see Klamer,Conversations with Economists(1984),110-111;Arrow,‘Rationality of Selfand Others’(1986),S393;Modigliani,see Hirschman,Rhetoric of Reaction(1991),74;Hahn and Solow,A Critical Essay on Modern Macroeconomic Theory(1995);Sims,‘Macroeconomics and Methodology’(1996);Sims,‘Comment on Del Negro,Schorfheide,Smets and Wouters’(2006),2;Krugman,‘How Did Economists Get It So Wrong?’(2009).

[98] Solow,‘Reflections on the Survey’(2007),235;also Solow,‘The State of Macroeconomics’(2008).

[99] Solow,in US Congress,‘Building a Science of Economics for the Real World’(2010),12;also Solow,‘Dumb and Dumber in Macroeconomics’(2003/2009).

[100] Wikiquotes,‘Talk:John von Neumann’(2015).



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