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愚见四:自我反省的邪恶孪生兄弟

书籍名:《真相与错觉》    作者:塔莎.欧里希
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如果说发生在马西娅·唐齐格身上最糟的事情之一,是27岁时被确诊为卵巢癌三期患者,那么发生在她身上最好的事情之一,就是从手术和化疗中恢复的过程中,从家人和朋友那里得到的无尽的爱和关怀。但是,虽然马西娅对亲朋好友的支持万分感激,却发现这些爱与关注也带来了意想不到的负面影响。她要亲自感谢每个人的关怀,并有义务通知所有人自己已康复,这些都让马西娅备感压力。她厌倦了打一通又一通的电话,一遍又一遍地说着同样的事,而她真正想做的就是休息。好在马西娅已经完全康复,但她永远不会忘记要通知自己所爱的人这一始料未及的负担。

几年后,马西娅有位好朋友也被诊断出患有癌症。她的朋友创建了一个简单却有效的网站,用来联系其朋友和家人。这件事使马西娅陷入了思考。如果每位癌症患者都享有免费的定制服务,可以发布更新状态、接收信息、获取资源以及组织治疗,所有这些功能可以在同一个地方实现,那会怎么样呢?这样一项服务不仅能让患者的亲朋好友时刻知晓患者的消息,也给患者腾出了时间,让他们可以全身心投入恢复身体健康。

马西娅将自己的想法付诸实践,成立了一个叫作MyLifeLine.org的非营利组织,该组织到今天已拥有成千上万的注册用户。她很快意识到要使一个非营利组织经济运转良好,需要大量募款集资,而集资方式通常是向潜在的捐赠者演讲。幸运的是,马西娅向来擅长这种演讲。直到有一年春天,在一个炎热的下午,她打算给来自肯塔基赛马会的捐款人做一次演讲。一年前,自己的演讲曾赢得全场起立鼓掌,雷鸣般的掌声经久不息。但今天,马西娅感觉自己有些不对劲,偏头痛也越来越厉害。站到演讲台上时,望着台下400位满怀期待的来宾小口地喝着薄荷饮料,她觉得口干舌燥,大脑一片空白。

如果你认为这时候我该告诉你这只是马西娅的感觉,演讲实际上大获成功,那你可要再想一想。事实上,这次演讲简直就是一场灾难。马西娅语速太快,吐字不清,一度完全忘了自己要说什么。演讲结束时,全场出于礼貌而响起的掌声,感觉像是在喝倒彩。马西娅演讲后随着人流走出场时,甚至没有听到一个人说起这次演讲(就在一年前,几乎每个人都向她表示祝贺)。马西娅胃里一阵翻腾:她知道自己让大家失望了。

那天晚上,马西娅泪如雨下地给家人讲述这一切。连续几周,她都沉浸于在大庭广众下出丑这件事中难以自拔,每天清晨醒来都会感到困窘,当时的演讲状况以及观众的反应一遍又一遍在脑海中回放。尽管男友不停安慰她演讲并没有那么糟糕,但马西娅还是继续着无尽的自我惩罚。

英国伟大诗人约翰·弥尔顿曾说过,思想“可以把天堂变成地狱,把地狱变成天堂”。我确信在某一时刻,你也曾陷入过这种自省的无限循环当中,几乎每个人都有过类似经历。人们可能会在脑海中不断回放某段对话,因为做了某件事(或没做某件事)而自责或是内心纠结,拼命想要弄清楚为什么不是自己想要的样子。在那么多人面前我怎么能那么难堪?为什么还没摆脱这段可怕的关系?为什么我就是无法不吃那些该死的饼干、甩掉这个假期长的肉?每个曾陷入这种循环的人都知道,我们不会一遍两遍甚至三遍地问自己这些问题,而是反复追问,根本没心思去想其他事情。

这种一心专注于自己的恐惧、缺点和不安全感的心理状态有个名字:反刍思维,它是自我反省的邪恶孪生兄弟。[70]你可能已经猜到了,反刍本身就是彻头彻尾的心理地狱,同时也是洞察力的巨大阻碍因素。正如马西娅察觉到的那样,一旦我们掉进“兔子洞”,想爬出来无疑困难重重。有时候甚至到了人们在反刍自己为何无法停止反刍的地步!

我相信每个人内心深处都潜藏着一个邪恶的角色。反刍者随时准备好对自己的选择事后诸葛亮,提醒自己有哪些不足。直到这个狡猾、鬼鬼祟祟的生物将人类踢进邪恶的旋涡,人们才彻底明白发生了什么,但对此已经无能为力。但有时候更危险的是,反刍者欺骗人们相信自己在进行有效的自我反省。毕竟,我们忍受这样的心理自虐如果不是为了获得洞察力,还能因为什么?比如在马西娅的例子中,人们会很容易相信其反思是有效果的。如果她能明白哪里出了错,下次就会表现得更好,不对吗?我有时甚至听到有人把“反刍”当作“反省”的同义词(比如,“那是个有趣的问题,让我反刍几天”)。以上就是为什么反刍思维是所有愚见中最“阴险”的:它不仅会蛮横地阻碍人们获得洞察力,还能伪装成让人受益的自我反省。[71]就获得自我意识而言,如果自我反省是破坏性的,反刍思维就是灾难性的。

这时,你可能从上述行为的描述中越来越了解自己了。我们都是这样,只是认识程度不同罢了(顺便说一下,你可以利用附录K进行评估,看看自己多久反刍一次)。尽管人们可以在任何事上运用反刍思维,但研究显示,当人们在极其重要的领域感觉无法胜任时,反刍最多。[72]一位一直以来被公认的“开心果”可能会因为破坏了好朋友的心情而反刍;一个工作狂可能会因为一次糟糕表现的评价而反刍;一位尽职尽责的母亲可能会因为暴躁、正处在青春期的孩子说了一句“你是世界上最糟糕的妈妈”而反刍。

但不管这种情况“正常与否”,反刍思维给你带来的损失可能比你以为的要大得多。我通过研究发现,频繁的反刍者更加不满自己的生活和人际关系,无法掌握自己的命运,通常不太开心。其他研究显示,反刍思维与分数较低[73]、解决问题能力较差[74]、心情更糟[75]以及睡眠质量较差[76]有关联。

对于人们的心理健康而言,反刍思维是一个令人悲伤的恶性循环。比如,得过抑郁症的人更有可能陷入反刍思维模式中,导致自己更加关注抑郁症,结果只会感觉更糟糕。[77]反刍者在未患抑郁症的情况下,也会更紧张、更焦虑。一项针对约会压力进行的大规模研究,通过对来自172个国家的3.2万多人进行调查后得出结论:尽管生活中消极事件的数量和严重性最能预测出人们的心理健康问题,但其反刍程度也是给他们带来压力、焦虑的重要因素之一。[78]

前文中提到,自我反省可能成为洞察力的障碍。如果真是这样,反刍思维很有可能是个50英尺高的障碍物。反刍思考时,我们耗费太多的精力关注自己哪里出了错,因此没有精力去探索洞察力的任何支柱了。一位自我意识独角兽说过:“如果花太长时间审视后视镜里有什么,我们无疑会撞上街边的路灯。”这也是为什么研究发现,尽管在不断处理自己的感受,反刍者判断自己的情感时还是不够准确[79]:他们过于关注某件事情、反应或个人缺陷,因此会忽略了整体状况。[80]

之所以说反刍思维是洞察力的敌人,另一个原因在于反刍思维是一项有效的逃避策略。[81]这么说可能有些奇怪,因为反刍的过程包括无休止地思考自己的问题。但实际上,当深陷那些消极事件背后的原因和意义难以自拔时,人们对随之而来的情绪会敬而远之,这一行为甚至比反刍行为更令人们痛苦。的确,反刍思维与其他逃避型应对策略(如酗酒)联系密切。[82]在一项针对刚刚完成酗酒康复计划人群的研究中,与非反刍者相比,反刍者恢复到其之前酗酒程度的可能性要高70%。[83]据调查,反刍者会逃避那些引起自己反刍的人和情况,而不是直接面对,寻求解决办法。[84]

由于上述种种原因,反刍思维无疑损害了人们准确了解内在自我的能力。尽管反刍的过程大部分属于关注内在,但也会伤害到人们的外在自我意识。一方面,反刍者忙于自责,忘了想自己该在他人面前呈现出什么样子。他们通常会忽视或逃避反馈,担心反馈会把自己送进“兔子洞”。因此,反刍者往往不仅不善于换位思考[85],而且会比非反刍者更加自恋和自私。

现在,人们很容易认为,拥有自我意识的独角兽可以幸福地免遭反刍思维的毒害。毕竟,他们是独角兽对吧?尽管自我意识独角兽反刍的情形比其他人要少得多,他们也不是完全免疫的,只有7%的自我意识独角兽称从没反刍过。不过我们发现,自我意识独角兽会运用两种有轻微差别的策略。

首先,当内心的反刍者悄悄来临时,自我意识独角兽更容易察觉,随后阻止其进入自己的思维轨道。实际上,大约有3/4的独角兽运用了具体的反刍中断策略(稍后我们会进行讨论)。其次,一般而言,自我意识独角兽对反刍思维有着更加包容的态度。有位独角兽之前是教师,现在是全职妈妈,带4个孩子,她解释道:“目标不能是零反刍,反刍是生活的一部分。我的目标就是尽快识别出反刍,运用策略将其摆脱,对所做的一切不要沮丧。”还有一位独角兽(是我的妹妹艾比,下一章我们还会提到她)告诉我们说:“反刍思维像场暴风雨。发生时一阵狂风骤雨,结束后是晴空万里。有趣的是,我对付反刍思维的方法之一就是不去担心它!”

让我们再回到马西娅那场公开演讲的灾难性事件上。我之前没提到的是,马西娅也是一位自我意识独角兽,这次演讲成了她寻求自我意识道路上一个关键的里程碑。在马西娅滑入反刍思维的“兔子洞”时,MyLifeLine.org的团队成员在忙着清点活动筹集到的资金。在确认了最终金额后,首席执行官把员工叫到会议室,带着让人有不祥预感的语气地宣布:“接下来我就直说了。”马西娅感到很不舒服,此刻她已做好准备,等待着对方用筹到的金额宣告自己的失败,而且是在整个团队面前。

但恰恰相反,她听到的是:“这是有史以来我们举办过的最成功的募款活动。”那一刻,马西娅有一种顿悟:尽管她一直纠结于自己的演讲,但其他所有人早就把演讲忘到九霄云外了。毕竟,他们有比这重要得多的事要考虑。马西娅差强人意的表现丝毫没有妨碍这次活动的成功。

意识到这一点,不管任何时候自己要掉进“兔子洞”时,马西娅就会问自己这些问题:别人会和我一样关心这件事吗?当答案是“否”的时候,她会尽力忘掉这件事。实际上,提醒自己人们通常不会像我们以为的那样关注我们的错误,是自我意识独角兽最常提到的反刍中断策略之一。

另一种有助于打破反刍思维的思维模式,最初是由美国儿童心理学家卡罗尔·德韦克和卡罗尔·迪纳在20世纪80年代提出的。[86]在观察五年级学生进行一项解决问题的练习时,德韦克和迪纳注意到,这群孩子完成任务时运用了两种截然不同的思维模式。有些孩子更关注自己的表现(称为“善做型”孩子),有些孩子更关注学习和改善(“善学型”孩子)。任务成功后,两组孩子都很投入和开心,这都在意料之中。

然而,当出现失败时,两组孩子的表现便出现了巨大差异。“善做型”孩子越来越沮丧,把失败归咎于自己的缺点(也就是说,其内心的反刍者此时处于主动地位)。他们还有各种类似“这太愚蠢了,我要带着玩具回家了”的反应,比如吹嘘自己在其他领域的卓越能力或告诉研究人员自己厌烦了。在对反刍思维建立了解的基础上,我们对其中2/3的孩子解决问题的能力有所下降这件事就不会感到吃惊了。

另一方面,“善学型”孩子面对失败的反应则完全不同。实际上,这些孩子根本没觉得那是一次失败。其中一个孩子一边兴奋地说“我喜欢挑战”,一边还搓着手吧唧着嘴(这可能是我们能想到的最可爱的反应了)。同一种情况下,“善做型”孩子陷入自我憎恨的旋涡,而“善学型”孩子的自信心实际上得到了提升。几乎所有人都保持着解决问题的能力,同时很多人解决问题的能力在大幅提升。

“善学型”思维模式,即关注学习而非表现,不仅是中断反刍思维的一把利器,也被证实可以提高成年人的工作表现。比如,在一项研究中,这一思维模式曾帮助医疗器械销售人员渡过难关。与那些拥有“善做型”思维模式的人相比,“善学型”销售人员在一个季度内的销售业绩更出色。[87]

当事情出了差错时,你是“善学型”还是“善做型”?你会掉入“兔子洞”,还是自己站起来掸去身上的尘土,再次尝试?(如果有兴趣,附录L可以帮助你判断。)如果你不太满意自己倾向于“善做型”,那么有一个好消息:研究一再表明,人们有能力改变自己的思维模式。有一位自我意识独角兽分享了一个美妙的故事,向我们诠释了如何做出改变。蒂姆是制药主管,雇了一个不够负责的高级经理。这位经理把事情彻底搞砸之后,蒂姆自责了好几天。幸运的是,蒂姆和高中时就结识的妻子及两个成年的儿子,在接下来的一周预定了为期10天的海上游。

一个如画般完美的清晨,蒂姆最早醒来,决定去甲板上走一走。海风拂面,他突然再次陷入对上次错误的反思中。就在内心的反刍者将要挟持这美好的一天时,蒂姆望向大海,明白了些什么:我虽然犯了错,但世界末日也不会到来,这事反倒教会我再也不要这样做了。接下来,一个完美的暗喻出现了:我得把这件事扔到大海里!他也确实这样做了。结果便是,蒂姆和家人一起享受完假期,回去后成了一名更聪明、机智的领导。

第三种打破反刍思维的方法,实际上是一种分散注意力的方法。我称之为“摁下暂停键”[88],感觉这是遇到真正的烦心事时最不应该采取的行为。摁下暂停键是人们可以采用的打破反刍思维的最简单的方法之一。我们不必反复怀疑自我,可以选择走开,做一些转移注意力的事。研究表明,最有效的分散注意力的方法就是做一些快速、有积极意义的事情,比如清扫工作、见见朋友或者锻炼(我认为,什么反刍情节都无法抵挡在美丽、阳光明媚的科罗拉多州骑行的诱惑)。尽管我不能容忍永远逃避困难,但摁下暂停键会帮助人们稍后再回到问题,并站在一个更高的层面审视这个问题。一旦有了一定距离,我们看待问题就不会那么沮丧,也会更加有计可施,有时都觉得这不是问题了。

第四种方法是一种奇怪却有用的停止思考方法,与摁下暂停键方法相似但不包括主动转移注意力,这一暂停发生在人们内心。在一项研究中,精神病患者按照要求随意联想自己脑海中的任何反刍想法[89](研究中实际发生的例子有:牙齿有龋齿;手碰到了呕吐物;无法停止想女人的臀部,即你平常总会有的担忧)。然后,医生大喊一声“停”,同时制造出突然的响声。听上去有些荒谬,但这种做法确实中断了患者的反刍思维。如果身边没有医生冲你大叫,你可以想象一个巨大的停止标志,或对自己说这样做什么也得不到,是时候停止这些想法了。

停止思考在应对我称为决策后反刍(post-decision rumination,简称PDR)的问题时尤其有效。一旦做出艰难的决定,内心的反刍者便热衷于讥讽人们,“你确定做出的决定正确吗”“你知道一旦出错后果是灾难性的吗”。但通过引起极度的自我怀疑,决策后反刍在我们继续前行、成功执行决策时就会麻痹我们自己。因此,不难看出为什么决策后反刍对重大决策而言尤其危险,比如出售业务部门、改行或决定离婚。所以,面临重大决策时,一定要三思而后行,权衡利弊、评估不同情形以及寻求建议。一旦做出决策,你就要相信这个决策,奋勇向前。这不意味着忽略我们决策的后果。相反,阻止决策后反刍才是你需要做的,这样才能控制好结果,不受那些无意义的心理唠叨的干扰。

最后,请允许我介绍最后一个打破反刍思维的方法:现实核查。我将会讲述一个令人苦恼却颇具启发意义的个人经历。前阵子,我参与了一个给一名客户进行为期一年的领导力开发的项目。进行到6个月时,我们发起了一项调查,想了解人们对其经历的感受如何:他们喜欢什么以及我们该如何进行改善,结果相当乐观。但要由衷感谢的是,这些人对我们如何改善没有任何隐瞒的想法,我们听到了许多有效的建议。当时我感觉不错,直到读到下面这条:


从这个项目中我得到最大的收获就是,一个咨询师通过介绍一种创新型领导力训练就能赚这么多钱,而介绍的不过是些陈腐琐碎、感觉良好、不断循环再包装的通俗心理学和常识概念。


令人心碎,对吧?我的第一反应是大笑,尽管并没发现什么好笑的地方。然后开始觉得好像有人朝我肚子上打了一拳。他说得对吗?我开始怀疑,其他人会不会也一直这么想却没敢告诉我呢?接着我感受到极度的恐慌,一直以来我是不是压根不称职?此时反刍者已经来临,几周之内是不会离去的。我就是反复在脑海里回想着那条建议,每当遇到了一位客户或发表一次演讲时,反刍思维就出现了:你的想法既保守又不成熟,别干这份工作了,快别出洋相了。

在经历了数周的内心折磨后,我最后决定打电话给一位朋友(可能行动有些晚),她是一位比我优秀得多的咨询师。“你收到这样的评价,我也很难过,”她耐心听完我的遭遇后说,“我的第一反应是为写这段话的人感到悲哀。你是出色的咨询师,我猜他的评论更多是针对自己而不是你。”那时我太过于沮丧,根本听不进去这些话。“但是,”她继续说,“让我们假设,他的反馈中不管怎样总有些可取之处。有没有客观证据证明你的想法不是原创的呢?”(顺便说一句,这个问题是另一种打破反刍思维的极好方法。)

她的询问立刻改变了我的思维模式,从我工作不称职转变到也许我能从中学到些什么。“好吧,”我试着说出来,“当提到领导力时,并没有太多新奇的东西,我也绝对不是这个世界上最有创造力的人。但人们告诉我,我的长处之一就是让晦涩的概念易于理解、可以付诸行动,而不是说一些他们不知道的关于领导力的内容。”然后,一个明摆着的想法突然让我顿悟:“也许我应该在项目一开始就说这些话。”自那以后,我一直都是这么做的。

写下那条建议的人当然不是在帮我,但朋友的提示让我从中获益。自我意识独角兽们称,当一个人陷入反刍思维时,最好的选择就是从自己信任的人那里进行现实核查。这样做,人们通常才会有希望,并且从中学习。

现在你了解了自我反省的四大愚见:锁着的地下室没有钥匙可以进入;问自己“为什么”既危险又没有意义;写日记并不总能提升自我认知;伪装成自我反省的反刍思维带来的伤害比我们想象的要严重得多。你也学到了如何小心避免那些随之而来的陷阱,学到了立刻就能使用的打破反刍思维的5种方法:记住没有人会和我们一样那么在意自己的错误;培养“善学型”思维模式;摁下暂停键;停止思考;现实核查。下一章,你会学到久经考验的、更强有力的提升内在自我意识的方法。


[1] enjoy stronger relationships: Rick Harrington and Donald A. Loffredo. “Insight, rumination, and self- reflection as predictors of well- being.” Journal of Psychology 145.1 (2010): 39– 57.

[2] calmer and more content: Anthony M. Grant, John Franklin, and Peter Langford. “The self- reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self- consciousness.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 30.8 (2002): 821– 835.

[3] thinking about ourselves: Paul J. Silvia and Ann G. Phillips. “Evaluating self- reflection and insight as self- conscious traits.” Personality and Individual Differences 50.2 (2011): 234– 237.

[4] the less self- knowledge: Anthony M. Grant, John Franklin, and Peter Langford. “The self- reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self- consciousness.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 30.8 (2002): 821– 835, p. 824.

[5] no more self- insight: J. Gregory Hixon and William B. Swann. “When does introspection bear fruit? Self- reflection, self- insight, and interpersonal choices.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64.1 (1993): 35–43.

[6] Though chimpanzees: David Premack and Guy Woodruff. “Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1.04 (1978): 515– 526.

[7] dolphins: Heidi E. Harley. “Consciousness in dolphins? A review of recent evidence.” Journal of Comparative Physiology A 199.6 (2013): 565– 582.

[8] elephants: Joshua M. Plotnik, Frans B. M. De Waal, and Diana Reiss. “Self- recognition in an Asian elephant.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103.45 (2006): 17053– 17057.

[9] even pigeons: Robert Epstein, Robert P. Lanza, and Burrhus Frederic Skinner. “Self- awareness in the pigeon.” Science 212.4495 (1981): 695– 696.

[10] 这里使用的“自我反省”一词等同于“自我反思”或“自我检查”。

[11] engaged in introspection: Susan Nolen- Hoeksema, Angela McBride, and Judith Larson. “Rumination and psychological distress among bereaved partners.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72.4 (1997): 855–862.

[12] associated with poorer well- being:Julie J. Park and Melissa L. Millora.“The relevance of reflection: An empirical examination of the role of reflection in ethic of caring, leadership, and psychological well being.”Journal of College Student Development53.2 (2012): 221– 242.

[13] have more anxiety:Anthony M. Grant, John Franklin, and Peter Langford. “The self- reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self consciousness.”Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal30.8 (2002): 821– 835.

[14] less positive social experiences:John B. Nezlek. “Day-to-day relationships between self-awareness, daily events, and anxiety.”Journal of Personality70.2 (2002): 249– 276.

[15] more negative attitudes:Daniel Stein and Anthony M. Grant. “Disentangling the relationships among self- reflection, insight, and subjective well- being: The role of dysfunctional attitudes and core self- evaluations.”Journal of Psychology148.5 (2014): 505– 522.

[16] let’s look at Karen:I’d like to thank the clinical psychologist who shared this example with me, whose name I’m not mentioning to maintain the confidentiality of his patient.

[17] Timothy Wilson calls “disruptive”:Timothy. D. Wilson, Strangers to Ourselves. Harvard University Press, 2004.

[18] “belief in this image”:Tarthang Tulku. Skillful Means.Dharma Publishing, 1978, pp. 102– 103.

[19] cleverly represses important:Sigmund Freud. An Outline of Psycho Analysis.W. W. Norton, 1949.

[20] excavate these sometimes:Timothy D. Wilson and Elizabeth W. Dunn.“Self- knowledge: Its limits, value, and potential for improve NmOeTnEt.S”P3s2y7chology55 (2004): 493–518.

[21] “no other notable figure”Todd Dufresne. “Psychoanalysis is dead . . .so how does that make you feel?,”latimes, February 18, 2004, http://articles.latimes/2004/feb/18/opinion/oe- dufresne18.

[22] falsifying patient files: Adopf Grünbaum. “Précis of the foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 9 (1986): 217– 284.

[23] worsened some of his patients’:Daniel Goleman. “As a therapist,Freud fell short, scholars find,”nytimes, March 6, 1990, http://ww.nytimes/1990/03/06/science/as- a- therapist- freud- fell- short- scholarsfind.html?pagewanted=all.

[24] his life a “catastrophe”:Todd Dufresne. “Psychoanalysis is dead . . . so how does that make you feel?,”latimes, February 18, 2004, http://articles.latimes/2004/feb/18/opinion/oe- dufresne18.

[25] 说句公道话,精神分析也取得了进步,许多21世纪的新方法都致力于让人们更全面地看待自己,而不是一心想要打开潜意识的门,这种做法实际上很像我们将在第五章学到的方法。

[26] wecan’tuncover them:Timothy D. Wilson. Strangers to Ourselves. Harvard University Press, 2004.

[27] 重要提示:当我提及心理治疗时,不包括领导力和执行力训练,这两项与注重问题解决的方法联系更为紧密。

[28] placebo effects may explain:Bruce E. Wampold, et al. “A meta- analysis of outcome studies comparing bona fide psychotherapies: Empirically, all must have prizes.”Psychological Bulletin122.3 (1997): 203–215.

[29] relationship she has with her client:Jennifer A. Lyke. “Insight, but not self- reflection, is related to subjective well being.”Personality and Individual Differences46.1 (2009): 66– 70.

[30] 此处是假设你在寻求针对日常烦恼和一般洞察力的治疗方法,与那些重大问题,比如虐待、沮丧、焦虑等问题的疗法完全不同。

[31] “hinder the search for”:Omer Faruk Simsek. “Self- absorption paradox is not a paradox: illuminating the dark side of self- reflection.”International Journal of Psychology48.6 (2013): 1109– 1121.

[32] showed male college students:Zoë Chance and Michael I. Norton. “I read Playboyfor the articles.”The Interplay of Truth and Deception: New Agendas in Theory and Research136 (2009).

[33] hire men over women:Michael I. Norton, Joseph A. Vandello, and John M. Darley. “Casuistry and social category bias.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology87.6 (2004): 817–831.

[34] conducted a creative study:Donald G. Dutton and Arthur P. Aron.“Some evidence for heightened sexual attraction under conditions of high anxiety.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology30.4 (1974): 510–517.

[35] 1英尺=0.304 8米。——编者注

[36] “so convenient a thing”:To see another excellent example of this phenomenon, check out this recent and fascinating study: Mitesh Kataria and Tobias Regner. “Honestly, why are you donating money to charity?An experimental study about self- awareness in status- seeking behavior.”Theory and Decision79.3 (2015): 493– 515.

[37] most plausible answer: Timothy D. Wilson, et al. “Introspection, attitude change, and attitude- behavior consistency: The disruptive effects of explaining why we feel the way we do.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 22 (1989): 287– 343.

[38] reasons why your relationship: Timothy D. Wilson, et al. “Effects of analyzing reasons on attitude- behavior consistency.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47.1 (1984): 1–5.

[39] self- described basketball experts: Jamin Brett Halberstadt and Gary M. Levine. “Effects of reasons analysis on the accuracy of predicting basketball games.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 29.3 (1999): 517– 530.

[40] reduces our satisfaction: Timothy Wilson et al. “Introspecting about reasons can reduce post- choice satisfaction.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 19.3 (1993): 331– 39.

[41] negative impact it has: Ethan Kross, Ozlem Ayduk, and Walter Mischel. “When asking ‘why’ does not hurt distinguishing rumination from reflective processing of negative emotions.” Psychological Science 16.9 (2005): 709– 715.

[42] write about why: E. D. Watkins. “Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self- focus during emotional processing.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 42.9 (2004): 1037– 1052.

[43] “sociability, likeability and interestingness”: J. Gregory Hixon and William B. Swann. “When does introspection bear fruit? Self- reflection, self- insight, and interpersonal choices.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64.1 (1993): 35–43.

[44] “rationaliz[ing], justify[ing], and explain[ing]”: Ibid.

[45] five minutes of what: Timothy D. Wilson, et al. “Introspection, attitude change, and attitude- behavior consistency: The disruptive effects of explaining why we feel the way we do.” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 22 (1989): 287– 343.

[46] that “an emotion, which is a passion”: R. H. M. Elwes. The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza, 1887, p. 248.

[47] act of translating our emotions: Matthew D. Lieberman, et al. “Putting feelings into words affect labeling disrupts amygdala activity in response to affective stimuli.” Psychological Science 18.5 (2007): 421– 428.

[48] don’t understand why: James C. Collins. How the Mighty Fall: And Why Some Companies Never Give In. Jim Collins, 2009.

[49] Charley Kempthorne has been keeping: Clare Ansberry. “The power of daily writing in a journal,” wsj, January 26, 2016, http://wsj /articles/the- power- of- daily- writing- in- a- journal- 1453837329.

[50] more self- reflection but less insight: Anthony M. Grant, John Franklin, and Peter Langford. “The self- reflection and insight scale: A new measure of private self- consciousness.” Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 30.8 (2002): 821– 835.

[51] “deepest thoughts and feelings”: James W Pennebaker. “Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process.” Psychological Science 8.3 (1997): 162– 166.

[52] distressing in the short term: Brian A. Esterling, et al. “Empirical foundations for writing in prevention and psychotherapy: Mental and physical health outcomes.” Clinical Psychology Review 19.1 (1999): 79– 96.

[53] longer- term improvements: James W. Pennebaker, Janice K. Kiecolt- Glaser, and Ronald Glaser. “Disclosure of traumas and immune function: health implications for psychotherapy.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56.2 (1988): 239–245.

[54] and well- being: Crystal L. Park and Carol Joyce Blumberg. “Disclosing trauma through writing: Testing the meaning- making hypothesis.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 26.5 (2002): 597– 616.

[55] have better memories: Kitty Klein and Adriel Boals. “Expressive writing can increase working memory capacity.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130.3 (2001): 520–533.

[56] higher grade point averages: James W. Pennebaker and Martha E. Francis. “Cognitive, emotional, and language processes in disclosure.” Cognition & Emotion 10.6 (1996): 601– 626.

[57] less absenteeism from work: Martha E. Francis and James W. Pennebaker. “Putting stress into words: The impact of writing on physiological, absentee, and self- reported emotional well- being measures.” American Journal of Health Promotion6.4 (1992): 280– 287.

[58] quicker re- employment:Stefanie P. Spera, Eric D. Buhrfeind, and James W. Pennebaker. “Expressive writing and coping with job loss.”Academyof Management Journal37.3 (1994): 72- – 733.

[59] help collegiate tennis players:V. B. Scott, et al. “Emotive writing moderates the relationship between mood awareness and athletic performance in collegiate tennis players.”North American Journal of Psychology5.2(2003): 311– 324.

[60] stronger immune systems:James W. Pennebaker, Janice K. Kiecolt Glaser, and Ronald Glaser. “Disclosure of traumas and immune function:health implications for psychotherapy.”Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 56.2 (1988): 239–245.

[61] showed less personal growth:Sonja Lyubomirsky, Lorie Sousa, and Rene Dickerhoof. “The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thining about life’s triumphs and defeats.”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology90.4 (2006): 692–708.

[62] “Happiness is a mystery”:G. K. Chesterton. Heretics. Butler and Tanner, 1905, p. 103.

[63] “who talk about things”:Bridget Murray. “Writing to heal,”apa.org,June 2002, http://apa.org/monitor/jun02/writing.aspx.

[64] writes “short narrative scenes”:Clare Ansberry. “The power of daily writing in a journal,” wsj, January 26, 2016, http://wsj/ articles/the- power- of- daily- writing- in- a- journal- 1453837329.

[65] 当写日记的人用更多带有因果关系、与洞察力有关的词汇来记录消极事情时(比如“推断”“原因”“理解”及“懂得”这些词),那么写日记便会带来非常大的益处。(when journalers use more causal: James W. Pennebaker. “Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process.” Psychological Science 8.3 (1997): 162– 66; James W. Pennebaker, Tracy J. Mayne, and Martha E. Francis. “Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement.” Journal of Personality sonality and Social Psychology 72.4 (1997): 863–871.)

[66] neither on its own is effective: James W. Pennebaker and Sandra K. Beall. “Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibition and disease.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95.3 (1986): 274–281.

[67] True insight only happens: Christopher D. B. Burt. “An analysis of a self- initiated coping behavior: Diary- keeping.” Child Study Journal 24.3 (1994): 171–189.

[68] writing every few days: James W. Pennebaker. “Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process.” Psychological Science 8.3 (1997): 162– 166.

[69] “I’m not even convinced”: Jordan Gaines Lewis, Ph.D. “Turning Trauma into Story: The Benefits of Journaling,” psychologytoday, August 17, 2012, https://psychologytoday/blog/brain-babble/201208/turning -trauma-story-the-benefits-journaling.

[70] 顺便说一句,多数研究学者认为反刍思维不同于担忧。反刍思维特指专注于过去或现在的事情,而担忧指对未来的恐惧。

[71] 当进行“正常的”自我反省时,人类大脑中默认模式的部分就会被激活。但斯坦福大学的研究学者J. 保罗·汉密尔顿最近发现,反刍时人类大脑的另一部分也会启动,参与处理悲伤情绪,这一部分叫作膝下前额叶皮层。反刍时,大脑的这两部分区域都会被激活。这一事实也解释了为何反刍会经常伪装成反省,(rumination can often masquerade:J. Paul Hamilton et al. "Depressive rumination, the default mode networdk, and the dark matter of clinical neuroscience." Biological Psychiatry 78.4 (2015):224-230.)以及反刍为何阻止大脑获取洞察力。尽管下面的话听上去很蠢,但如果正在反刍,你可能会说:“膝下前额叶皮层使我心情郁闷,不让我再次获得洞察力!”

[72] we don’t measure up: T. Pyszczynski and J. Greenberg. “Self- regulatory perseveration and the depressive self- focusing style: A self- awareness theory of reactive depression.” Psychological Bulletin 102.1 (1987): 122– 138. See also Ann G. Phillips and Paul J. Silvia. “Self- awareness and the emotional consequences of self- discrepancies.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31.5 (2005): 703– 713.

[73] related to lower grades: V. B. Scott and William D. McIntosh. “The development of a trait measure of ruminative thought.” Personality and Individual Differences 26.6 (1999): 1045– 1056.

[74] impaired problem solving: Sonja Lyubomirsky, et al. “Why ruminators are poor problem solvers: clues from the phenomenology of dysphoric rumination.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77.5 (1999): 1041–1060.

[75] worse moods: Nilly Mor and Jennifer Winquist. “Self- focused attention and negative affect: a meta- analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 128.4 (2002): 638–662.

[76] poorer- quality sleep: Jacob A. Nota and Meredith E. Coles. “Duration and timing of sleep are associated with repetitive negative thinking.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 39 (2015): 253– 261.

[77] stuck in ruminative thought patterns: T. Pyszczynski and J. Greenberg. “Self- regulatory perseveration and the depressive self- focusing style: A self- awareness theory of reactive depression.” Psychological Bulletin 102.1 (1987): 122– 138.

[78] rumination can often masquerade: J. Paul Hamilton et al. “Depressive rumination, the default- mode network, and the dark matter of clinical and life events on mental health.” PLOS One 8.10 (2013): e76564.

[79] ruminators are less accurate: Joseph Ciarrochi and Greg Scott. “The link between emotional competence and well- being: A longitudinal study.” British Journal of Guidance & Counselling 34.2 (2006): 231– 243.

[80] miss the larger picture: Rick Harrington and Donald A. Loffredo. “Insight, rumination, and self- reflection as predictors of well- being.” Journal of Psychology 145.1 (2010): 39– 57.

[81] effectively an avoidance strategy: Steven C. Hayes, et al. “Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64.6 (1996): 1152.

[82] correlation between rumination: Rick E. Ingram. “Self- focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model.” Psychological Bulletin 107.2 (1990): 156–176.

[83] ruminators were 70 percent: Jay G. Hull. “A self- awareness model of the causes and effects of alcohol consumption.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 90.6 (1981): 586–600.

[84] avoid the people and situations: S. Rachman, J. Grüter- Andrew, and R. Shafran. “Post- event processing in social anxiety.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 38.6 (2000): 611– 617

[85] poor perspective- takers: Jeffrey A. Joireman, Les Parrott III, and Joy Hammersla. “Empathy and the self- absorption paradox: Support for the distinction between self- rumination and self- reflection.” Self and Identity 1.1 (2002): 53– 65.

[86] help us combat rumination: Carol I. Diener and Carol S. Dweck. “An analysis of learned helplessness: Continuous changes in performance, strategy, and achievement cognitions following failure.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 451– 462; Carol I. Diener and Carol S. Dweck. “An analysis of learned helplessness: II. The processing of success.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39.5 (1980): 940–952.

[87] learn- well reps had significantly: Don Vande Walle, et al. “The influence of goal orientation and self- regulation tactics on sales performance: A longitudinal field test.” Journal of Applied Psychology 84.2 (1999): 249–259.

[88] I call hitting pause: Allison Abbe, Chris Tkach, and Sonja Lyubomirsky. “The art of living by dispositionally happy people.” Journal of Happiness Studies 4.4 (2003): 385– 404.

[89] whatever ruminative thought came into: R. S. Stern, M. S. Lipsedge, and I. M. Marks. “Obsessive ruminations: A controlled trial of thoughtstopping technique.” Behaviour Research and Therapy 11.4 (1973): 659– 662.



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